Neither Greece nor Rome, this is the first society in which women adopted a key role 500 years before Christ

Never before had women enjoyed as much freedom and authority as in the Persian Empire around 500 BC. Founded by Cyrus the Great, the Persian Empire, although patriarchal, was centuries ahead of its time, instituting religious freedom and a notable degree of equality between men and women, heavily influenced by Zoroastrianism.

Women could own property and operate their own businesses, managing male employees. They could also choose their husbands – or decide not to marry – and move about freely. Some women held high military ranks, commanding armies or serving as admirals in the Persian fleet, and even participated in the development and evolution of the armed forces. Women also served as warriors and were common in diplomatic and security roles. Kings often appointed their wives as chief advisors, granting them their own court and executive authority. These queens could rule after their husband’s death until their children reached adulthood.

Within businesses, women occupied high positions with authority comparable to men. There was no difference in salary between men and women, except in cases where women were pregnant or had recently given birth—these women actually earned more. Many of the most powerful merchants were women, and even female slaves were treated more like servants, receiving a salary and not regarded as inferior.

The enemies of the Persians mocked this equality, claiming that men were unnaturally subjected to women and questioning their manhood and strength. Ironically, the texts in which Greek and Roman writers ridiculed their Persian adversaries now serve as valuable documentation of the prominent role of women in Persian society.

Queen Atossa, a pioneer

Within this empire, which lasted two centuries and was the largest in the world up to that time, one woman stands out: Queen Atossa. According to ancient texts, she was a pioneer in both the epistolary genre and in the treatment of breast cancer.

Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great, was married to Darius I – famous for the Battle of Marathon against the Greeks – and was the mother of Xerxes I, the king who defeated the Spartans at Thermopylae. According to the historian Herodotus, Darius I originally planned a campaign against the Scythians but was persuaded by Atossa to invade Greece instead.

Herodotus also wrote that Atossa suffered from a bleeding tumor in her chest, which ruptured and spread. Some modern scholars suggest it may have been breast cancer, while others propose it was mastitis. Initially, Atossa tried to conceal her illness, but as the swelling and pain increased, she turned to Democedes, a Greek physician at the Persian court, who successfully removed it. The queen went on to live a normal life and bore several children, including Xerxes I. This is not the earliest known reference to breast cancer. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, a medical treatise written around 1600 BC, describes eight cases of breast tumors treated with cauterization, though these interventions did not prevent the disease from progressing.

Atossa is also credited by some historical sources with authoring the first recorded handwritten letter. Although the document itself has not survived, references to it by Greek and Persian historians suggest that it was addressed to other members of the court, possibly dealing with diplomatic matters.

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